*DISCLAMER*
This is simply me posting my notes online, some information here may be incorrect.
Chapter 17 Questions
Of the 6 nutrients required for life; which store energy?
Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
What are essential nutrients?
Nutrients an animal's body can't produce.
>Essential meaning the body needs it implying it doesn't have it
What functions does water serve to the body?
- Temperature regulation
- Lubrication for body tissues
- Chemical reactant in digestion
- circulatory & transport medium for cells
- maintenance of cells
- Growth & repair medium
What are some of the different forms of carbohydrates and where are they found?
Sugar: Fruits, honey, milk, sugar beets, sugar cane
Starch: Grains, root veggies, legumes
Cellulose: Most vegetables (polysaccharides)
What are the 4 categories of lipids?
- Neutral fats
- Phospholipids
- Steroids
- Other lipid substances
What is a saturated fat vs. a non-saturated fat? Where are they found?
Saturated Fats: Fatty acids with single bonds btween carbon atoms. Saturated with hydrogen. Found in meat & dairy foods.
Non-Saturated/Unsaturated Fats: Fatty acids with double bonds btween carbon atoms. Found in vegetable oils, nuts and seeds
What is the basic amino acid structure?
- Variable R group
- Carboxyl group (-COOH)
- amine group (-NH2)
Amino acids that an animals body can't make or can't make fast enough to keep up with the body's need for them.
What is meant by nitrogen balance in the body?
When the amount of nitrogen ingested is equal to the amount of nitrogen excreted.
What is meant by the biological value of a food?
Percentage of absorbable protein available for body function.
What do vitamins do in the body?
They function as co-enzymes or parts of co-enzymes
>Enzyme: Speeds up rate of biochemical reactions
What's a common mammalian species that can't produce vitamin C
Humans & Guinea pigs.
What are the 4 fat soluble vitamins?
- A
- D
- E
- K
- Microminerals
- Macrominerals
- Trace elements
>Microminerals are not needed as much (less) (Micro-small)
>Trace elements are needed the least since too much of it can be toxic
What's catabolism and anabolism?
Catabolism: breaking DOWN of nutrients into smaller molecules to produce energy
Anabolism: ASSEMBLING/BUILDING new molecules from smaller components produced from catabolism
In catabolism and hydrolysis what are each larger nutrient broken down into?
Carbohydrates breaks down into monosaccharides
Fats/Lipids break down into fatty acids & glycerol
Proteins break down into amino acids
Nucleic Acids break down into nucleotides
What are catalysts and co-factors in regards to enzymes and metabolic reactions?
Catalyst: speeds up reactions by lowering activation energy
Co-factors: non-protein substances that help enzymes in finishing reactions.
Where does anaerobic respiration take place? What's the net result?
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm.
Net result= 2 NADH and 4 ATP molecules
Where does aerobic respiration take place? What are the 2 stages?
Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria. The two stages are the Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain.
How does the metabolism/breakdown of protein differ from that of sugar?
[empty for now]
What are the functions of epithelial tissues?
- Protects, covers & lines
- Filters biochemical substances
- Absorbs nutrients
- Provides sensory input
- Manufactures excretions & secretions
Apical: Side of cell that faces the lumen (body cavity)
Basal: side of cell that faces underlying connective tissue
Lateral: area of cell btween the basal and apical surfaces (the middle I think)
What are the 3 types of cellular junctions? What's the basal lamina?
- Tight junctions
- Desmosomes
- Gap junction
>Noted that definition can also be layer of extracellular matrix secreted by epithelial cells.
What's special about desmosomes and gap junctions?
Both are close to cells?
[Unsure]
What are 2 ways we classify epithelial cells?
Location and role in the function of tissue.
Where are simple squamous epithelial cells found?
In protected areas of the body
Where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Areas where secretion and absorption occur (protected areas of the body.)
Where are simple columnar epithelial cells found?
In the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and lots of excretory ducts.
Where are stratified squamous epithelial cells found?
Areas of the body subject to mechanical and chemical stress
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Along large excretory ducts.
Where are stratified columnar epithelial cells found?
In some parts of respiratory, digestive and reproductive systems.
What do pseudostratified columnar epithelium look like? Where are they found?
They look stratified but they really aren't. They are simple epithelium. They're found by the respiratory tract and parts of the male reproductive system.
What do transitional epithelium look like? Where are they found?
Transitional epithelia looks vary on how much it's stretched. They're found in areas that need to constantly expand and contract.
What's meant by an exocrine gland vs an endocrine gland?
Exocrine gland: They secrete their products ONTO the body surfaces or into body cavities. Has ducts (except Goblet Cells)
Endocrine gland: They secrete their products INTO the extracellular space. These cells do not have ducts or tubules.
What is the one example of unicellular exocrine gland and what does it make?
Goblet cell. It makes mucin
>Called Goblet cell b/c it kind of looks like a goblet
>I don't see it but whatever.
What are the 3 types of exocrine glands? How do they each work?
1) Holocrine
Granules are stored in the cell and accumulate until cell ruptures, releasing granules.
> Secretion includes granules + dead cell fragments
2) Merocrine/Eccrine
Secretions are packed into granular units and released via exocytosis, secretory cells remail intact during secretory process.
3) Apocrine
Secretory cells store granules until apex is full then cells pinches in two and releases the apex into the duct system. The cell repairs the damage and the process repeats.
> Apex: Top of cell
What are the functions of connective tissue?
- Protection
- Shock absorption
- Orients how fibers are formed
- Medium for nutrient & waste exchange
- Protects against invading microorganisms
[unknown]
What are the 3 components of connective tissue?
- Extracellular fibers
- Ground substances
- Cells
- Collagenous fibers found in tissues that are continuously pulled & stretched (like ligaments & tendons)
- Reticular fibers found around very cellular organs
- Elastic fibers found in tissues subject to stretching
Fixed cells: Cells stay in connective tissue
Transient Cells: passes in and out of connective tissue
Diapedesis: the process of passing in and out of connective tissue
What are examples of loose vs dense connective tissues?
Loose connective tissue- areolar, adipose (fat) & reticular tissues
Dense connective tissue- regular, irregular and elastic tissues.
What two types of adipose (fat) tissues are there?
1) White adipose
2) Brown adipose
What is stroma? What are sheets of facia?
Stroma: foundation supporting tissues of organs
Sheets of facia: connective tissue that's under the skin that attaches to, stabilizes, encloses and separate muscles and other internal organs.
What are the 3 specialized connective tissues?
- Bone
- Blood
- Cartilage
Cartilage is more rigid than dense connective tissue but more flexible than bone tissue, it's also avascular.
Perichondrium is important b/c it gives nutrition to the cartilage.
What's special about bone and it's organization?
[Nothing yet]
What type of tissue is blood? Within blood, what's the ground substance vs fibrous component? What are the 3 main types of cells found in blood?
Blood is a connective tissue. The ground substance is plasma and the fibrous component is protein cells.
The 3 types of cells found in blood are:
Erythrocytes (red blood cells), Leukocytes (white blood cells) and Thrombocytes (palates)
What are 4 types of membranes found in the body?
- Mucous
- Serous
- Cutaneous
- Synovial (joints)
What substance do mucus membranes tend to produce?
Mucus
>I mean obviously
Where are your serous or serosal layers? Parietal vs visceral?
Serous layers: lines walls and covers organs that fill closed body cavities
[partially answered]
What is a transudate? What 3 fluids are made up normally of transudates?
Transudate: fluid from a body cavity that has passed through a membrane or has been extracted from a tissue.
- Pleural fluid (thorax)
- Peritoneal fluid (abdomen)
- Pericardial fluid (heart)
Effusion is when you have too much fluid. Too little fluid can lead to adhesion between layers.
Where are synovial membranes found?
In cavities of joints.
What are 3 types of muscle tissues? Which are striated, voluntary? Involuntary? Where are each found?
1) Skeletal Muscle
Found in tendons, striated and voluntary.
2) Smooth Tissue
Found in walls of hollow organs. Not striated and involuntary.
3) Cardiac tissue
Found in the heart. Involuntary and striated.
What are the 2 nervous tissue cell types? Which is more numerous?
- Neurons
- Neuroglial cells
>this is b/c they surround neurons.
What are the 3 parts of the neuron cell? Which direction does the electrical impulse flow?
- Axon
- Dendrite
- Perikaryon
What are the 4 (kind of 3) phases of tissue repair?
- Inflammation
- Formation of granulation
- Tissue regeneration
- Fibrosis classification (?)
Granulation tissue produces bacteria inhibiting substances making it resistant to infection.
What's meant by primary vs secondary healing?
Primary (1st intention) is when no granulation tissue is formed and healing time is shorter (~7-14 days)
Secondary (2nd intention) is when there's scarring (granulation tissue) and the edges of the wound are sperate. Healing takes longer
>wound is most likely very large or on an area like the elbow or knee where it is will constantly be opened.
Chapter 6 Questions
Functions of the integument are...
- covers & protects
- reduces threat of injury
- stores nutrients
- synthesizes vitamin D
- gets sensory information
- prevents desiccation
- maintains normal body temperature
- excretes organic wastes, water and salt
1) Epidermis- thin, most superficial
2) Dermis/corium- very thick, the middle layer
3) Hypodermis/subcutaneous layer- varies in thickness, deepest layer
What are the 4 main cell types of the epidermis?
- Keratinocyte
- Melanocyte
- Langerhans cell
- Merkel Cell
There is no lucidum or granules.
- Stratum corneum
- Stratum spinosum
- Stratum basale
1) Papillary layer- Meissner's corpuscles are found here.
>Meissner's corpuscles sense light touch
[INCOMPLETE]
What is different about the touch receptors in the hypodermis vs the dermis?
The hypodermis touch receptors sense heavy touch while the dermis touch receptors sense light touch
What causes pigmentation in the skin? What controls the melanocytes?
Melanin causes pigmentation. Melanocytes are controlled by hypophysis (pituitary gland)
How are paw pads different from other cutaneous structures?
[unsure will update later]
What is the planum nasale and where is it found?
Planum Nasale: The top of the nose in cats, pigs, sheep and dogs.
What are ergots and chestnuts and what animals have them?
Ergots and chestnuts are dark, horny structures found on the leg.
Ergots are found in the caudal hairs of the fetlock
>Caudal= towards the tail
>Fetlock=joint btween horses cannon and pastern bone. is kind of the ankle of the horse.
Chestnuts are found inside each leg at the carpus and tarsus.
What's the point of cutaneous pouches in sheep? Where are they found in sheep?
Cutaneous pouches are possibly for hormone scent secretion stuff. The pouches are found infraorbital (the eyes), interdigital (btween toes) and inguinal (glands).
What are the main functions of hair? What are it's 3 main layers?
The functions of hair are to provide protection via camouflage and maintain body temperature.
- Medulla (middle)
- Cortex (around medulla)
- Cuticle (very outer layer)
- Anagen phase (growth)
- Catagen phase (transition)
- Telogen phase (resting)
The quality and type of melanin in the hair dictates hair color.
Pheomelanin is why some animals have reddish yellow hair.
What are the 3 types of hairs? Why do some hairs stand up sometimes?
Some hairs stick up because of the contraction of the arrector pili muscle.
- Primary hairs
- Secondary hairs
- Tactile hairs
Lanolin
What are the 2 types of sweat glands and how do they differ?
1) Eccrine-open onto skin
2) Apocrine- opens into hair follicles
How are tail glands and anal glands different?
[unsure]
Where is the corium tissue found? What are its two parts?
Corium tissue is found under claws and hooves.
1) Inner layer-modified dermis
2) Outer layer- modified epithelial layer
Basic horse hoof anatomy.
How are horns different from antlers?
Horns are not sex specific and grow continuously while antlers are found primarily on males and shed annually.
What are the 1 or 2 possible reasons why owls have such good sense of hearing?
The ear holes are places unevenly on owls head.
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